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It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about this migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was this midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets-the Laurentide to the east and the Cordilleran to the west-that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat.
Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. This route would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. Until the early 1970s,most archaeologists did not consider the coast a possible migration route into the Americas because geologists originally believed that during the last Ice Age the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf, the flat, submerged part of the continent that extends into the ocean. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of north America to what is today the state of Washington.
The most influential proponent of the coastal migration route has been Canadian archaeologist Knut Fladmark. He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized unglaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level. Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support form from the fact that the greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest.
More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of ice-free areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago. Research now indicates that sizable areas of southeastern Alaska along the inner continental shelf were not covered by ice toward the end of the last Ice Age. One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago. Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around 16,000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago.
The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. This is the time period in which most scientists formerly believed the area to be inhospitable for humans. It has been suggested that if the environment were capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans. Fladmark and other believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between13,000 and 14,000 years ago.
The coastal hypothesis suggests an economy based on marine mammal hunting, saltwater fishing, shellfish gathering, and the use of watercraft. Because of the barrier of ice to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and populated areas to the north, there may have been a greater impetus for people to move in a southerly direction.
Paragraph 1: It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about this migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was this midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets-the Laurentide to the east and the Cordilleran to the west-that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat.
托福TPO9阅读题目Part1
1. According to paragraph 1, the theory that people first migrated to the Americans by way of an ice-free corridor was seriously called into question by
○paleoecologist Glen MacDonald's argument that the original migration occurred much later than had previously been believed
○the demonstration that certain previously accepted radiocarbon dates were incorrect
○evidence that the continental ice began its final retreat much later than had previously been believed
○research showing that the ice-free corridor was not as long lasting as had been widely assumed
2. The word “persuasively” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○aggressively
○inflexibly
○convincingly
○carefully
Paragraph 2: Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. This route would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. Until the early 1970s,most archaeologists did not consider the coast a possible migration route into the Americas because geologists originally believed that during the last Ice Age the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf, the flat, submerged part of the continent that extends into the ocean. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of north America to what is today the state of Washington.
3. Paragraph 2 begins by presenting a theory and then goes on to
○ discuss why the theory was rapidly accepted but then rejected
○ present the evidence on which the theory was based
○ cite evidence that now shows that the theory is incorrect
○ explain why the theory was not initially considered plausible
4. The phrase “prior to” is closest in meaning to
○ before
○ immediately after
○ during
○ in spite of
5. Paragraph 2 supports the idea that, before the 1970s, most archaeologists held which of the following views about the earliest people to reach the Americas?
○They could not have sailed directly from Beringia to Alaska and then southward because, it was thought, glacial ice covered the entire coastal region.
○They were not aware that the climate would continue to become milder.
○They would have had no interest in migrating southward from Beringia until after the continental glaciers had begun to melt.
○They lacked the navigational skills and appropriate boats needed long-distance trips.
Paragraph 3: The most influential proponent of the coastal migration route has been Canadian archaeologist Knut Fladmark. He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized unglaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level. Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support form from the fact that the greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest.
6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways to leave out essential information.
○Because this region has been settled the longest, it also displays the greatest diversity in Native American languages.
○Fladmark's hypothesis states that the west coast of the Americas has been settled longer than any other region.
○The fact that the greatest diversity of Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans lends strength to Fradmark's hypothesis.
○According to Fladmark, Native American languages have survived the longest along the west coast of the Americas.
Paragraph 4: More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of ice-free areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago. Research now indicates that sizable areas of southeastern Alaska along the inner continental shelf were not covered by ice toward the end of the last Ice Age. One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago. Vastareas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around 16,000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago.
7. The author's purpose in paragraph 4 is to
○ indicate that a number of recent geologic studies seem to provide support for the coastal hypothesis
○ indicate that coastal and inland migrations may have happened simultaneously
○ explain why humans may have reached America's northwest coast before animals and plants did
○ show that the coastal hypothesis may explain how people first reached Alaska but it cannot explain how people reached areas like modern British Columbia and Washington State
8. The word “Vast” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○Frozen
○Various
○Isolated
○Huge
Paragraph 5: The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. This is the time period in which most scientists formerly believed the area to be inhospitable for humans. It has been suggested that if the environment were capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans. Fladmark and other believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between13,000 and 14,000 years ago.
9. According to paragraph 5, the discovery of the remains of large land animals supports the coastal hypothesis by providing evidence that
○ humans were changing their hunting techniques to adapt to coastal rather than inland environments
○ animals had migrated from the inland to the coasts, an indication that a midcontinental ice-free corridor was actually implausible
○ humans probably would have been able to find enough resources along the coastal corridor
○ the continental shelf was still exposed by lower sea levels during the period when the southward migration of people began
10. The word “inhospitable” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ not familiar
○ not suitable
○ not dangerous
○ not reachable
11. According to paragraph 5, the most recent geologic research provides support for a first colonization of America dating as far back as
○16,000 years ago
○14,000 years ago
○12,500 years ago
○10,000 years ago
Paragraph 6: The coastal hypothesis suggests an economy based on marine mammal hunting, saltwater fishing gathering, and the use of watercraft. Because of the barrier of ice to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and populated areas to the north, there may have been a greater impetus for people to move in a southerly direction.
12. The word “impetus” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ chance
○ protection
○ possibility
○ incentive
Paragraph 1: It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. ■The first water craft theory about the migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was the midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets-the Laurentide to the west-that enabled the southward migration. ■But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. ■He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat. ■
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
Moreover, other evidence suggests that even if an ice-free corridor did exist, it would have lacked the resources needed for human colonization.
Where could the sentence best fit?
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Recent evidence favors a rival to the long-standing theory that the Americas were colonized 11,000-12,000 years ago by people migrating south from Beringia along a midcontinental ice-free corridor.
●
●
●
Answer Choices
○Evidence that an ice-free corridor between two ice sheets developed when the continental ice first began to melt came primarily from radiocarbon dating.
○There is growing support for the theory that migration took place much earlier, by sea, following a coastal route along Alaska and down the northwest coast.
○Recent geologic evidence indicates that contrary to what had been believed, substantial areas along the coast were free of ice as early as 16,000 years ago.
○Research now indicates that the parts of the inner continental shelf that remained covered with ice were colonized by a variety of early human groups well adapted to living in extremely cold environments.
○There is evidence suggesting that areas along the coast may have contained enough food resources between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago to have made human colonization possible.
○Even though the northern part of the continent allowed for a more varied economy, several early human groups quickly moved south.
托福TPO9阅读原文Part2
Reflection in Teaching
Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. Educators T. Wildman and J. Niles (1987) describe a scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers. This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching.
Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish-a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be “drawn to these new, refreshing” conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy.“ The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner.
Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being ”utilitarian … and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection.“ Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation.
Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. This process took time and patience and effective trainers. The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection.
Wildman and Niles identify three principles that facilitate reflective practice in a teaching situation. The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. The second is the availability of sufficient time and space. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. The third is the development of a collaborative environment with support from other teachers. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment: ”Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea.“
The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of theirs. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect - for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit.
Paragraph 1: Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. Educators T. Wildman and J. Niles (1987) describe a scheme for developing reflective practice in experienced teachers. This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching.
托福TPO9阅读题目Part2
1. The word ”justified“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○supported
○shaped
○stimulated
○suggested
2. According to paragraph 1, it was believed that reflection could help teachers
○understand intellectual principles of teaching
○strengthen their intellectual connection to their work
○use scientific fact to improve discipline and teaching
○adopt a more disciplined approach to teaching
Paragraph 2: Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish-a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be ”drawn to these new, refreshing“ conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy. The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner.
3. The word ”flourish“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ continue
○ occur
○ succeed
○ apply
4. All of the following are mentioned about the experimental strategy described in paragraph 2 EXCEPT:
○It was designed so that teachers would eventually reflect without help from others.
○It was used by a group of teachers over a period of years.
○It involved having teachers take part in discussions of classroom events.
○It involved having teachers record in writing their reflections about teaching.
5. According to paragraph 2, Wildman and Niles worried that the teachers they were working with might feel that
○ the number of teachers involved in their program was too large
○ the concepts of teacher reflection were so abstract that they could not be applied
○ the ideas involved in reflection were actually not new and refreshing
○ several years would be needed to acquire the habit of reflecting on their teaching
Paragraph 3: Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being ”utilitarian … and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection.“ Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation.
6. The word ”objective“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ unbiased
○ positive
○ systematic
○ thorough
7. According to paragraph 3, what did the teachers working with Wildman and Niles often fail to do when they attempted to practice reflection?
○Correctly calculate the amount of time needed for reflection.
○Provide sufficiently detailed descriptions of the methods they used to help them reflect.
○Examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms.
○Establish realistic goals for themselves in practicing reflection.
Paragraph 4: Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. This process took time and patience and effective trainers. The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection.
8. How is paragraph 4 related to other aspects of the discussion of reflection in the passage?
○It describes and comments on steps taken to overcome problems identified earlier in the passage.
○It challenges the earlier claim that teachers rarely have the time to think about their own or others' teaching.
○It identifies advantages gained by teachers who followed the training program described earlier in the passage.
○It explains the process used to define the principles discussed later in the passage.
Paragraph 5: Wildman and Niles identify three principles that facilitate reflective practice in a teaching situation. The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. The second is the availability of sufficient time and space. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. The third is the development of a collaborative environment with support from other teachers. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment: ”Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea.“
9. The word ”compelling“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ commonly held
○ persuasive
○ original
○ practical
Paragraph 6: The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of theirs. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect - for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit.
10. According to paragraph 6, teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because
○ it is not generally supported by teacher educators
○ the benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately
○ it is impossible to teach and reflect on one's teaching at the same time
○ they have often failed in their attempts to become reflective practitioners
11. Which of the sentences below expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information
○The practice of being reflective is no longer simply a habit among teachers but something that is externally motivated.
○Most teachers need to explore ways to form the habit of reflection even when no external motivation exists.
○Many aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among teachers.
○There has not been enough exploration of why teachers practice reflection as a habit with or without external motivation.
Paragraph 4: Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. ■This process took time and patience and effective trainers. ■The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection.
Paragraph 5: ■Wildman and Niles identify three principles that facilitate reflective practice in a teaching situation. ■The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. The second is the availability of sufficient time and space. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. The third is the development of a collaborative environment with support from other teachers. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment: ”Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea.“
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
However, changing teachers' thinking about reflection will not succeed unless there is support for reflection in the teaching environment.
Where could the sentence best fit?
13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
Wildman and Niles have conducted research on reflection in teaching
●
●
●
Answer Choices
○Through their work with Virginia teachers, Wildman and Niles proved conclusively that reflection, though difficult, benefits both teachers and students.
○Wildman and Niles found that considerable training and practice are required to understand classroom events and develop the skills involved in reflection.
○Wildman and Niles identified three principles that teachers can use to help themselves cope with problems that may arise as a result of reflection.
○Wildman and Niles concluded that teachers need sufficient resources as well as the cooperation and encouragement of others to practice reflection.
○There are numerous obstacles to implementing reflection in schools and insufficient understanding of why teachers might want to reflect.
○Whether teachers can overcome the difficulties involved in reflection may depend on the nature and intensity of their motivation to reflect
托福TPO9阅读答案Part2
参考答案：
1. ○1
2. ○2
3. ○3
4. ○4
5. ○2
6. ○1
7. ○3
8.○1
9. ○2
10. ○2
11. ○3
12. ○3
13. Wildman and Niles found that
Wildman and Niles concluded that
There are numerous obstacles to
托福TPO9阅读翻译Part2
参考翻译：教学中的反思
教师被认为受益于反思实践--有意识地更深入思考、仔细地检查发生在他们自己教室里的事件和相互影响。教育家T o 怀尔德曼和J. o奈尔斯(1987)描述了一个在资深教师中开展反思实践的方案。这是合理的，因为人们认为反思的实践可以帮助老师们更加理性地对待他们的角色和从事的事业，并可以让他们能在教学准则中处理科学事实的缺乏和知识的不确定。
怀尔德曼和 奈尔斯都特别喜欢研究在哪种情况下反思可能大量出现--一个几乎没有任何文献指导的课题。他们给弗吉利亚的一组教师设计了一个实验策略，并在几年内研究了这一组的40位教师。他们担心很多人可能认为沉浸在这种全新的教育概念中的结果就是，发现教师反思的抽象概念和现实之间的鸿沟太大而无法逾越。要反思像教学这样复杂的事件不是容易的。老师们都参加了关于教学事件计划的讨论，紧接着在工作人员的协助下去反思具体问题，然后是独立反思。
怀尔德曼和奈尔斯 观察到系统教学反思需要一种以客观的方式来理解教室里发生事件的能力。他们起初认为参与研究的教师们太功利，并不是足够丰富和详细以促使系统反思的产生。教师们很少有机会和时间去客观地观察他们自己和其他老师的教学。更深的研究发现教师们更愿意评价事件而不是站在事件之外洞察一个事件的促进因素。
帮助这组教师修订他们关于课堂事件的认识变成了关键问题。这个过程需要时间和耐心以及有效的受训者。研究者认为训练同一个教师使他客观地看待事情需要大约20到30小时，而反思技巧的练习同样需要这么多时间。
怀尔德曼和 奈尔斯确定了促进在教学环境中实现反思行为的3个原则。第一就是来自教学系统管理层的支持，这使得教师们明白反思实践的必要条件，并知道它与教学之间的联系。第二就是需要足够的时间和空间。项目中的教师们抱怨说让他们放弃别人当时的要求而为自己腾出时间去提升自己的反思能力是很困难的。第三就是以其他教师的支持为基础的亲密无间的环境。项目中的教师同样需要支持和鼓励以帮助他们去应付他们职业生活中的不如意的方面。怀尔德曼和奈尔斯作出了一个总结性的评论：”或许我们学到的最重要的观点就是教师不会因为这是好的，或者甚至是不可或缺的观念而自发地开展教学反思。“
怀尔德曼 和奈尔斯 的工作表明认识进行反思的某些困难的重要性。也有其他人知道这个，并指出相似的关于反思行为的教学职业文化阻碍。Zeichner 和Liston(1987)指出作为一个决策者的教师和作为一个将其他人观念付诸实施的教师之间，存在着角色上的不一致。比文化问题更基本的是动机问题。成为一个反思教学的执行者需要额外的付出(Jaworski,1993)而且只有一个模糊的目标，甚至不仅没有显而易见的回报，反而有易受责难的威胁。很少人直接质疑什么可能让一个教师想变成反思型教师。显然，使教师朝着反思行为奋斗的最直接的原因是师资培训者认为这是一件很好的事情。关于反思的动力存在许多未知的问题，例如外部驱动的反思的价值与通过习惯进行反思的价值是不同的。
1. The phrase ”at random“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○finally
○over a long period of time
○successfully
○without a definite pattern
2. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the fungi in lichens benefit from their symbiotic relationship with algae in what way?
○The algae help the fungi meet some of their energy needs.
○The algae protect the fungi from the Sun's radiation.
○The algae provide the fungi with greater space for absorbing water.
○The fungi produce less waste in the presence of algae.
3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Some of the earliest important examples of symbiosis-the close cooperation of two or more living things-occur in island communities.
○Symbiosis-the close cooperation of pairs or small groups of living organisms-is especially important in these island environments.
○The first organisms on these islands worked together closely in a relationship known as symbiosis, which is particularly important on islands.
○It is significant to note that organisms in the beginning stages of the development of island life cannot survive without close cooperation.
Paragraph 3: Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. These plantspropagate by producing spores-tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant-but the spore are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or by wind. But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests.
4. The word ”abundantly“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ occasionally
○ plentifully
○ usefully
○ fortunately
5. The word ”propagate“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ multiply
○ emerge
○ live
○ evolve
6. According to paragraph 3, what was the relationship between lichens and ferns in the development of plant life on Hawaii?
○Ferns were able to grow because lichens created suitable soil.
○The decomposition of ferns produced minerals that were used by lichens.
○Lichens and ferns competed to grow in the same rocky environments.
○Lichens and ferns were typically found together in volcanic areas.
Paragraph 4: Many millions of years after ferns evolved (but long before the Hawaiian Islands were born from the sea), another kind of flora evolved on Earth: the seed-bearing plants. Thiswas a wonderful biological invention. The seed has an outer coating that surrounds the genetic material of the new plant, and inside this covering is a concentrated supply of nutrients. Thus the seed's chances of survival are greatly enhanced over those of the naked spore. One type of seed-bearing plant, the angiosperm, includes all forms of blooming vegetation. In the angiosperm the seeds are wrapped in an additional layer of covering. Some of these coats are hard-like the shell of a nut-for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry. In some angiosperms the seeds are equipped with gossamer wings, like the dandelion and milkweed seeds. These new characteristics offered better ways for the seed to move to new habitats. They could travel through the air, float in water, and lie dormant for many months.
7. The word ”This“ in the passage refers to
○the spread of ferns and mosses in Hawaii
○the creation of the Hawaiian Islands
○the evolution of ferns
○the development of plants that produce seeds
8. According to paragraph 4, why do seeds have a greater chance of survival than spores do? To receive credit, you must select TWO answer choices.
○Seeds need less water to grow into a mature plant than spores do.
○Seeds do not need to rely on outside sources of nutrients.
○Seeds are better protected from environmental dangers than spores are.
○Seeds are heavier than spores and are therefore more likely to take root and grow.
9. Why does the author mention ”a nut“, ”a peach“, and ”a cherry“?
○To indicate that some seeds are less likely to survive than others
○To point out that many angiosperms can be eaten
○To provide examples of blooming plants
○To illustrate the variety of coverings among angiosperm seeds
10. The word ”dormant“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○hidden
○inactive
○underground
○preserved
Paragraph5: Plants with large, buoyant seeds-like coconuts-drift on ocean currents and are washed up on the shores. Remarkably resistant to the vicissitudes of ocean travel, they can survive prolonged immersion in saltwater when they come to rest on warm beaches and the conditions are favorable, the seed coats soften. Nourished by their imported supply of nutrients, the young plants push out their roots and establish their place in the sun.
11. According to paragraph 5, a major reason that coconuts can establish themselves in distant locations is that their seeds can
○survive long exposure to heat on island beaches
○float and survive for long periods in ocean water
○use saltwater for maintenance and growth
○maintain hard, protective coats even after growing roots
12. According to the passage, which of the following characteristics do spores and seeds have in common?
○They may be surrounded by several layers of covering.
○They are produced by flowering plants.
○They may be spread by wind.
○They are able to grow in barren soils.
Paragraph 3: Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. ■These plants propagate by producing spores-tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant-but the spore are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. ■Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. ■Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or by wind. ■But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests.
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
So since the chances of survival for any individual spore are small, the plants have to produce many spores in order to propagate.
Where could the sentence best fit?
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
After the formation of the Hawaiian Islands, much time passed before conditions were suitable for plant life.
●
●
●
Answers Choices
○Algae are classified as symbiotic because they produce energy through the process of photosynthesis.
○The first successful plants on Hawaii were probably lichens, which consist of algae and fungi living in a symbiotic relationship.
○Lichens helped create favorable conditions for the growth of spore-producing plants such as ferns and mosses.
○Seed-bearing plants evolved much later than spore-producing plants, but both types of plants had evolved well before the formation of the Hawaiian Islands.
○Unlike spores, seeds must move to new habitats in order to have a strong chance of survival and growth.
○Seed-bearing plants arrived and spread quickly in Hawaii, thanks to characteristics that increased their seeds' ability to survive and to move to different areas
参考答案：
1. ○4
2. ○1
3. ○3
4. ○2
5. ○1
6. ○1
7. ○4
8. ○2, 3
9. ○4
10. ○2
11. ○2
12. ○3
13. ○2
14. The first successful plants…
Lichens helped create favorable…
Seed-bearing plants arrived…
托福TPO7阅读原文Part2
Ancient Rome and Greece
There is a quality of cohesiveness about the Roman world that applied neither to Greece nor perhaps to any other civilization, ancient or modern. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, which were stationed in every province, and the network of stone-built roads that linked the provinces with Rome. The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of law and administration and on the universal army of officials who enforced common standards of conduct. The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment-on the absolute certainty that anyone or anything that threatened the authority of Rome would be utterly destroyed.
The source of Roman obsession with unity and cohesion may well have lain in the pattern of Rome's early development. Whereas Greece had grown from scores of scattered cities, Rome grew from one single organism. While the Greek world had expanded along the Mediterranean seas lanes, the Roman world was assembled by territorial conquest. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. Yet the essential difference is undeniable. The key to the Greek world lay in its high-powered ships; the key to Roman power lay in its marching legions. The Greeks were wedded to the sea; the Romans, to the land. The Greek was a sailor at heart; the Roman, a landsman.
Certainly, in trying to explain the Roman phenomenon, one would have to place great emphasis on this almost instinct for the territorial imperative. Roman priorities lay in the organization, exploitation, and defense of their territory. In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a land-based society. From this arose the Roman genius for military organization and orderly government. In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders, fostered the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, pietas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order.
Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thoroughly disgusted. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was original; Rome, derivative. Greece had style; Rome had money. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans. ”Had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,“ asked Horace in his epistle, ”what work of ancient date would now exist?“
Rome's debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements.
Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into new spheres-especially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber.
Paragraph 1: There is a quality of cohesiveness about the Roman world that applied neither to Greece nor perhaps to any other civilization, ancient or modern. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, which were stationed in every province, and the network of stone-built roads that linked the provinces with Rome. The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of law and administration and on the universal army of officials who enforced common standards of conduct. The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment-on the absolute certainty that anyone or anything that threatened the authority of Rome would be utterly destroyed.
托福TPO7阅读题目Part2
1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm.
○Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls, they used regular controls to maintain their realm.
○Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together.
○Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws.
2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are controls that held together the Roman world EXCEPT
○ administrative and legal systems
○ the presence of the military
○ a common language
○ transportation networks
Paragraph 2: The source of Roman obsession with unity and cohesion may well have lain in the pattern of Rome's early development. Whereas Greece had grown from scores of scattered cities, Rome grew from one single organism. While the Greek world had expanded along the Mediterranean seas lanes, the Roman world was assembled by territorial conquest. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. Yet the essential difference is undeniable. The key to the Greek world lay in its high-powered ships; the key to Roman power lay in its marching legions. The Greeks were wedded to the sea; the Romans, to the land. The Greek was a sailor at heart; the Roman, a landsman.
3. The phrase ”obsession with“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ thinking about
○ fixation on
○ interest in
○ attitude toward
4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following was NOT characteristic of Rome's early development?
○Expansion by sea invasion
○Territorial expansion
○Expansion from one original settlement
○Expansion through invading armies
5. Why does the author mention ”Alexander the Great“ in the passage?
○To acknowledge that Greek civilization also expanded by land conquest
○To compare Greek leaders to Roman leaders
○To give an example of Greek leader whom Romans studied
○To indicate the superior organization of the Greek military
Paragraph 3: Certainly, in trying to explain the Roman phenomenon, one would have to place great emphasis on this almost instinct for the territorial imperative. Roman priorities lay in the organization, exploitation, and defense of their territory. In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a land-based society. From this arose the Roman genius for military organization and orderly government. In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders, fostered the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, peitas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order.
6. The word ”fostered“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ accepted
○ combined
○ introduced
○ encouraged
7. Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about the people of Latium?
○ Their economy was based on trade relations with other settlements.
○ They held different values than the people of Rome.
○ Agriculture played a significant role in the society.
○ They possessed unusual knowledge of animal instincts.
Paragraph 4: Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thoroughly disgusted. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was original; Rome, derivative. Greece had style; Rome had money. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans. ”Had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,“ asked Horace in his epistle, ”what work of ancient date would now exist?“
8. Paragraph 4 indicates that some historians admire Roman civilization because of
○ the diversity of cultures within Roman society
○ its strength
○ its innovative nature
○ the large body of literature that it developed
9. In paragraph 4, the author develops a description of Roman civilization by
○ comparing the opinions of Roman intellectuals to Greek intellectuals
○ identifying which characteristics of Roman civilization were copied from Greece
○ explaining how the differences between Roman and Greece developed as time passed
○ contrasting characteristics of Roman civilization with characteristics of Greek civilization
10. According to paragraph 4, intellectual Romans such as Horace held which of the following opinions about their civilization?
○Ancient works of Greece held little value in the Roman world.
○The Greek civilization had been surpassed by the Romans.
○Roman civilization produced little that was original or memorable.
○Romans valued certain types of innovations that had been ignored by ancient Greeks.
Paragraph 5: Rome's debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements.
Paragraph 6: Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into new spheres-especially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber.
11. The word ”spheres“ in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ abilities
○ areas
○ combinations
○ models
12. Which of the following statements about leading Roman soldiers and statesmen is supported by paragraphs 5 and 6?
○They could read and write the Greek language.
○They frequently wrote poetry and plays.
○They focused their writing on military matters.
○They wrote according to the philosophical laws of the Greeks.
Paragraph 4: Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thoroughly disgusted. ■As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. ■At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. ■For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. ■Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was original; Rome, derivative. Greece had style; Rome had money. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans. ”Had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,“ asked Horace in his epistle, ”what work of ancient date would now exist?“
13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.
They esteem symbols of Roman power, such as the massive Colosseum.
Where would the sentence best fit?
14. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question worth 2 points.
The Roman world drew its strength from several important sources.
●
●
●
Answer choices
○Numerous controls imposed by Roman rulers held its territory together.
○The Roman military was organized differently from older military organizations.
○Romans valued sea power as did the Latins, the original inhabitants of Rome.
○Roman values were rooted in a strong attachment to the land and the stability of rural life.
○Rome combined aspects of ancient Greek civilization with its own contributions in new areas.
○Educated Romans modeled their own literature and philosophy on the ancient Greeks.
托福TPO7阅读答案Part2
参考答案：
1. ○ 3
2. ○ 3
3. ○ 2
4. ○ 1
5. ○ 1
6. ○ 4
7. ○ 3
8.○ 2
9. ○ 4
10.○ 3
11. ○ 2
12. ○ 1
13. ○ 2
14. Numerous controls imposed…
Roman values were rooted…
Rome combined aspects of…
托福TPO7阅读翻译Part2
参考答案：古代罗马和希腊
罗马具有一种希腊和其他任何不论是古代的还是现在的文明都不具备的凝聚力。罗马墙上的石块是靠设计的规整和特别有力的水泥而被固定在一起，与此相同，罗马帝国的各个部分也因物理的、组织的和精神的束缚而组成了一个坚若磐石的整体。物理的束缚包括驻扎在每个省的戍卫军组成的网络和连通每个省与罗马的用石头铺成的道路网络。组织上的束缚则基于法律和行政的一般原则，以及遍布各地、统一行动的军政府。精神上的控制则建立在恐惧和惩罚上--毫无疑问，任何人或任何事，只要威胁到罗马的权威，都终将被摧毁。
罗马人对统一和团结的执著可能源自于罗马早期的发展模式。希腊是从二十几个分散的城邦发展而来，然而罗马则是从单个组织发展而来。希腊沿着地中海航线扩张，然而罗马帝国则通过领土的占领而壮大。当然，它们的对比也不是那么的绝对：在亚历山大大帝时期，希腊找到了他们整个历史中最大的领地征服者;罗马人虽曾一度迁移到意大利之外，但他们却没有忘记海洋的力量。然而，他们之间本质的区别是不容否认的。希腊世界的关键是强大的船队，而罗马帝国的关键则是他们行进的部队。希腊人死守着海洋，罗马人则死守着土地。希腊人是天生的水手，罗马人则是陆上强兵。
毫无疑问的是，为了解释罗马现象，人们应该极大地强调他们的几乎是本能的领土观念。罗马人的天性就在于对领土的组织、扩张和防御。完全也可能是Latium平原--拉丁人最初建立罗马的地方，造就了罗马人陆地定居、陆地财产、陆地经济、陆地行政以及以陆地基础的社会习惯和技巧。在此基础上也产生了罗马人的军事组织和政府管理的才能，。反过来，对土地以及稳定乡村生活的深深的依恋孕育了罗马人的品格：gravitas，一种责任感;peitas，对家庭和国家的牺牲精神;以及iustitia，一种对自然秩序的使命。
现在人们对罗马的态度各异，从无限的崇尚到彻底的反感。经常有权威的崇拜者，尤其是在历史学家中，不由自主地推崇强大，他们对罗马权力的欣赏远胜于对希腊狡黠的欣赏。与此同时，有一种固化的观念厌恶罗马。对于很多人而言，罗马至多不过是对希腊更大规模的模仿和延续，希腊文明拥有质量，罗马则仅仅拥有数量。希腊是发明者，而罗马则是研究和发展的分支。这些实际上是一些高智商罗马人的观点。”如果希腊人像我们一样轻视创新?“Horace 在他的信件中问道”那么有什么古时候的作品能现存于世呢?"
罗马的确欠着希腊无数的债务。罗马人吸收了希腊人的宗教和伦理哲学。在文学上，希腊作家被下意识地当作他们拉丁后裔的模范。毋庸置疑的是，一个受过教育的罗马人一定会讲流利的希腊语。在推理哲学和科学上，罗马人实际上没有超过前期希腊的成就。
然而如果认为罗马是希腊-罗马文化的晚辈那就错了。罗马的天才们突破了新的领域-尤其是在法律、军队的组织、管理和工程上。而且，由罗马国家内部产生的压力促使文学和艺术的造诣达到最高水平。所以很多罗马的高级军官和政治家们都是高素质的作家。
关于阅读答案及原文翻译
晋侯、秦伯围郑，以其无礼于晋，且贰于楚也。晋军函陵，秦军氾南。
佚之狐言于郑伯曰：“国危矣，若使烛之武见秦君，师必退。”公从之。辞曰：“臣之壮也，犹不如人；今老矣，无能为也已。”公曰：“吾不能早用子，今急而求子，是寡人之过也。然郑亡，子亦有不利焉。”许之。
夜缒而出，见秦伯，曰：“秦、晋围郑，郑既知亡矣。若亡郑而有益于君，敢以烦执事。越国以鄙远，君知其难也。焉用亡郑以陪邻？邻之厚，君之薄也。若舍郑以为东道主，行李之往来，共其乏困，君亦无所害。且君尝为晋君赐矣，许君焦、瑕，朝济而夕设版焉，君之所知也。夫晋，何厌之有？既东封郑、又欲肆其西封，若不阙秦，将焉取之？阙秦以利晋，唯君图之。”秦伯说，与郑人盟。使杞子、逢孙、杨孙戍之，乃还。
子犯请击之。公曰：“不可。微夫人之力不及此。因人之力而敝之，不仁；失其所与，不知；以乱易整，不武。吾其还也。”亦去之。
4．下列句子中，加点词的解释不正确的一项是(3分)
A．晋军函陵
军：驻扎
B．又欲肆其西封
封：疆界
C．因人之力而敝之
敝：损害
D．以乱易整，不武
武：威武
5．对下列句中“之”字用法归类正确的一项是(3分)
①臣之壮也，犹不如人
②因人之力而敝之
③邻之厚，君之薄也
④行李之往来，共其乏困 ⑤阙秦以利晋，唯君图之 ⑥微夫人之力不及此
A．①③④/②⑥/⑤
B．①②/③⑥/④⑤
C．①④/②③⑥/⑤
D．①⑤/②⑥/③④
6．以下句子编为四组，全都直接表现烛之武高超的说服艺术的一组是(3分)
①夜缒而出，见秦伯 ②若亡郑而有益于君，敢以烦执事 ③焉用亡郑以陪邻 ④若舍郑以为东道主，行李之往来，共其乏困，君亦无所害 ⑤许君焦、瑕，朝济而夕设版焉，君之所知也 ⑥若不阙秦，将焉取之 ⑦秦伯说，与郑人盟
A．①②③⑤
B．②④⑤⑥
C．①③⑤⑥
D．②⑤⑥⑦
7．下列对原文有关内容的分析和概括，不正确的一项是(3分)
A．秦、晋兵临城下，郑国危在旦夕，在这种形势下，烛之武不顾个人安危，不计个人恩怨，“夜缒而出”，求见秦伯，表现了他深明大义、以国事为重的爱国精神。
B．烛之武具有高超的论辩艺术，他在秦伯面前不卑不亢，侃侃而谈，既不刺激对方，又不失本国尊严，抓住秦伯的心理，层层深入，逐步渗透，最终使秦伯心悦诚服。
C．秦、晋曾是友好邻邦，秦对晋有割让焦、瑕二邑的恩惠，晋对秦却严加防范。烛之武对这种微妙的关系了如指掌，并巧妙地加以利用，这是他得以智退秦师的关键。
D．烛之武的劝说，使秦伯撤走了围郑的军队，还派部队帮助郑国防守，秦晋联盟顷刻瓦解，晋国不得已而退兵。烛之武既退秦师，又退晋师，可谓一石二鸟。
8．翻译下列句子。（10分）
(1)吾不能早用子，今急而求子，是寡人之过也。
(2) 越国以鄙远，君知其难也。焉用亡郑以陪邻？
参考答案
4解析：D项“武”应为“使用武力的道义准则，即武德”。答案：D
5．解析：①③④助词无义，②⑥结构助词“的”，⑤代词。答案：A
6解析：①句是叙述烛之武出城见秦伯，⑦句是说秦伯，含此两句的项排除。答案：B
7解析：C项中“秦对晋有割让焦、瑕二邑的恩惠”不对，应是“晋曾经答应把焦、瑕二邑割让给秦”。答案：C
8.答案：(1)我早先没有重用您，现在危急之中求您，这是我的过错。
(2)越过别的国家而把远地当作边邑，你知道时困难的为什么要用灭亡郑国而给邻国增加土地呢？
二：
1．下列各句中划线词的解释，错误的一项
[ ]
A．焉用亡郑以陪邻——陪：增加
B．朝济而夕设版焉——济：救济
C．既东封郑，又欲肆其西封——肆：延伸，扩张
D．阙秦以利晋——阙：侵损，削减
2．与“行李之往来”的“行李”语法现象不同的是
[ ]
A．可怜体无比，阿母为汝求。
B．权起更衣，肃追于宇下。
C．阡陌交通，鸡犬相闻。
D．行为偏僻性乖张，那管世人。
3．与“夫晋，何厌之有”句式相同的一项是：
[ ]
A．马之千里者
B．是寡人之过也
C．邻之厚，君之薄也
D．何陋之有
4．翻译句子。
①若亡郑而有益于君，敢以烦执事。
②行李之往来，共其乏困。
参考答案
1．B
2．D
3．D
4．①如果灭亡郑国对你有好处的话，那麻烦您动手吧！
②出使的人来来往往，（郑国可以随时）供给他们缺少的东西。
参考译文
（僖公三十年）晋文公和秦穆公联合围攻郑国，因为郑国曾对文公无礼，并且郑国同时依附于楚国与晋国。晋军驻扎在函陵，秦军驻扎在氾水的南面。
佚之狐对郑伯说：“郑国处于危险之中了！假如让烛之武去见秦伯，（秦国的）军队一定会撤退。”郑伯同意了。烛之武推辞说：“我年轻时，尚且不如别人；现在老了，也不能有什么作为了。”郑文公说：“我早先没有重用您，现在由于情况危急因而求您，这是我的过错。然而郑国灭亡了，对您也不利啊！”烛之武就答应了这件事。
在夜晚（有人）用绳子（将烛之武）从城上放下去，见到了秦伯，烛之武说：“秦、晋两国围攻郑国，郑国已经知道要灭亡了。假如灭掉郑国对您有好处，怎敢冒昧地拿这件事情来麻烦您。越过邻国把远方的郑国作为（秦国的）东部边邑，您知道这是困难的，（您）为什么要灭掉郑国而给邻邦晋国增加土地呢？邻国的.势力雄厚了，您秦国的势力也就相对削弱了。如果您放弃围攻郑国而把它当作东方道路上接待过客的主人，出使的人来来往往，（郑国可以随时）供给他们缺少的东西，对您也没有什么害处。而且您曾经给予晋惠公恩惠，惠公曾经答应给您焦、瑕二座城池。 （然而）惠公早上渡过黄河回国，晚上就修筑防御工事，这是您知道的。晋国，怎么会满足呢？（现在它）已经在东边使郑国成为它的边境，又想要向西扩大边界。如果不使秦国土地亏损，将从哪里得到（他所奢求的土地）呢？削弱秦国对晋国有利，希望您考虑这件事！”秦伯非常高兴，就与郑国签订了盟约。派遣杞子、逢孙、杨孙戍守郑国，于是秦国就撤军了。
晋大夫子犯请求出兵攻击秦军。晋文公说：“不行！假如没有那个人（秦伯）的力量，我是不会到这个地步的。依靠别人的力量而又反过来损害他，这是不仁义的；失掉自己的同盟者，这是不明智的；用散乱（的局面）代替整齐（的局面），这是不符合武德的。我们还是回去吧！”晋军也就离开了郑国。
《爱莲说》原文：
水陆草木之花，可爱者甚蕃。晋陶渊明独爱菊。自李唐来，世人甚爱牡丹。予独爱莲之出淤泥而不染，濯清涟而不妖，中通外直，不蔓不枝，香远益清，亭亭净植，可远观而不可亵玩焉。(甚爱 一作：盛爱)
予谓菊，花之隐逸者也；牡丹，花之富贵者也；莲，花之君子者也。噫！菊之爱，陶后鲜有闻。莲之爱，同予者何人?牡丹之爱，宜乎众矣!
翻译：
水上、陆地上各种草本木本的花，值得喜爱的非常多。晋代的陶渊明唯独喜爱菊花。从李氏唐朝以来，世人大多喜爱牡丹。我唯独喜爱莲花从积存的淤泥中长出却不被污染，经过清水的洗涤却不显得妖艳。（它的茎）中间贯通外形挺直，不牵牵连连也不枝枝节节，香气传播更加清香，笔直洁净地竖立在水中。（人们）可以远远地观赏（莲），而不可轻易地玩弄它啊。
我认为菊花，是花中的隐士；牡丹，是花中的.富贵者；莲花，是花中（品德高尚）的君子。唉！（对于）菊花的喜爱，陶渊明以后就很少听到了。（对于）莲花的喜爱，像我一样的还有什么人呢？（对于）牡丹的喜爱，人数当然就很多了!
竹之始生，一寸之萌①耳，而节叶具焉②。自蜩腹蛇蚹③以至于剑拔十寻④者，生而有之也。今画者乃节节而为之，叶叶而累之，岂复有竹乎？故画竹必先得成竹⑤于胸中，执笔熟视，乃见其所欲画者，急起从之，振笔直遂⑥，以追其所见。如兔起鹘落，少纵则逝矣。
与可⑦之教予如此。予不能然也，而心识其所以然。夫既心识其所以然,而不能然者，内外不一，心手不相应，不学之过也。故凡有见于中⑧而操之不熟者，平居⑨自视了然，而临事忽焉丧之，岂独竹乎？
阅读训练
一、文中用了两处比喻，找出来，说说它们的比喻义。蜩腹蛇蚹，指竹笋节节环生的形状，好像蝉腹下的条纹和蛇腹下的横鳞。剑拔，形容竹笋脱掉笋壳长成竹子，好像剑从剑鞘里拔出那样挺直。/兔起鹘hú落：比喻动作敏捷。也比喻绘画或写文章迅捷流畅。
二、翻译下列句末语气词，说明其表达的语气。
1.而节叶具焉。（呀）（肯定）2.岂复有竹乎（呢）（反问）
3.少纵则逝矣 （了）（感叹）4.苛政猛于虎也 （啊）（判断）
三、 解释加点的词。
1.竹之始生，一寸之萌耳（幼芽）2.岂复有竹乎（再）
3.今画者乃节节而为之，叶叶而累之（添加）（堆叠）
4.以追其所见（追索）
四、 这则短文对你有何启示：胸中必须先有鲜活的形象，才能创造出真正的'艺术造型。
注释
①萌：芽。
②而节叶具焉：但节、叶都具备了。具，具备。焉，句末的语气助词。
③蜩（tiáo）腹蛇蚹（fù）：蝉的腹部、蛇的腹下。蜩，蝉。蛇蚹，蛇的腹下。蝉的腹部是分节的，蛇的腹下分节、有鳞片，这些特征都与竹笋有些相像。这里形容竹出生的状态。
④寻：八尺。
⑤成竹：完整的竹子。
⑥急起从之，振笔直遂：这里用了互文的手法，意即“急起振笔，从之、直遂”，就是急忙起来挥动画笔，依照、跟随（心中的竹子形象）。遂，通“随”。
⑦与可：文与可，名同，北宋梓州永泰（近四川监亭人），曾任洋州知州。文与可是苏轼的表兄，宋代画竹名师。
⑧见于中：心中有了构思。心里明白。
⑨平居：平常，平时。
今译
竹子初生时，只是一寸高的小芽而已，但节、叶都已经具备了。从像蝉的腹部、蛇的鳞片一样，到剑一样挺出高达十寻的，各种形态都是天生就有的。如今画竹的人一骨节一骨节地来画它，一片叶一片叶地来堆砌它，哪里还会有完整的、活生生的竹子啊！所以画竹一定要心里先有完整的竹子形象，提笔来仔细的观察，就会看到他所想画的竹子，急起挥笔，依照心里竹子的形象，一气呵成，以再现心中所见到的（竹子）。（这个过程）好像兔子跳跃飞奔、鹰隼俯冲下搏一样，稍一迟疑，机会就失去了。
我不能做到这样，但心里明白其中的道理。既然心里明白其中的道理，但又不能做到的原因，是由于想法和动作内外不一，心与手不能协调一致，没有学习的过错啊。所以凡是心里明白而操作不熟练的，平常自己以为明白，可事到临头就忽然忘记了，难道只有画竹是这样吗？
《愚公移山》阅读答案及原文翻译
《愚公移山》
原文
太行,王屋二山，方七百里，高万仞，本在冀州之南，河阳之北。（现位于，河南省济源市。）
北山愚公者，年且九十，面山而居。惩山北之塞，出入之迂也。聚室而谋曰：“吾与汝毕力平险，指通豫南，达于汉阴，可乎？”杂然相许。其妻献疑曰：“以君之力，曾不能损魁（kuí）父之丘，如太行、王屋何？且焉置土石？”杂曰：“投诸渤海之尾，隐土之北。”遂率子孙荷担者三夫，叩石垦壤，箕畚（jīběn）运于渤海之尾。邻人京城氏之孀（shuāng）妻有遗男，始龀（chèn），跳往助之。寒暑易节，始一反焉。
河曲智叟笑而止之曰：“甚矣，汝之不惠。以残年余力，曾不能毁山之一毛，其如土石何？”北山愚公长息曰：“汝心之固，固不可彻，曾不若孀妻弱子。虽我之死，有子存焉；子又生孙，孙又生子；子又有子，子又有孙；子子孙孙无穷匮（kuì）也，而山不加增，何苦而不平？”河曲智叟亡以应。
操蛇之神闻之，惧其不已也，告之于帝。帝感其诚，命夸娥氏二子负二山，一厝朔东，一厝雍南。自此，冀之南，汉之阴，无陇断焉。
相关试题及答案
1.课文中愚公相信能搬走大山的理由是（用原文回答）子子孙孙无穷匮也，而山不加增；智叟认为愚公不能移走大山的原因是（用原文回答）以残年余力，曾不能毁山之一毛，其如土石何。
2.晋人张湛对本文曾有“屈其理而服其志也”的评点，这一评点是针对文中“河曲智叟亡以应”而言的。
3.“帝感其诚”，所谓“诚”指的是愚公移山的决心和实际行动。
4.文中用天神搬走大山作结局的作用是反映古代劳动人民实现抱负的美好愿望。
5.愚公之妻和智叟对愚公移山的态度是否相同？这两个人物在情节发展上起什么作用？
[答]这两个人物所说的话，表面上有相似之处，但目的全然不同，从他们说话的措辞和语气便可看出。愚公之妻是从“献疑”的角度说的。“以君之力”带有关心的语气，“曾不能损魁父之丘，如太行、王屋何”，语气较轻，说的是她的真实想法。但她并不反对移山，所以接着就提出移山过程中必须解决的重要问题：“焉置土石”。智叟则显然是讥笑和责难愚公，阻止愚公移山。“甚矣，汝之不惠”是很严厉的责备口气，“残年余力”又显出十足的轻视，“曾不能毁山之一毛”是有意挖苦，“其如土石何”简直是讥笑愚公无能了。
这两个人物对情节的发展都具有一定的作用。前者的“献疑”，引起全家人讨论运土问题，导致移山行动的开始；后者的“笑而阻之”，引出愚公的反驳，由此过渡到神话结尾，才显得自然合理。
6.对京城氏之子“跳往助之”这一细节应如何理解？
[答]京城氏之子是“遗男”，年纪又很小，他去帮助愚公移山，必然是得到了他的寡母的同意，可见愚公的事业受到了众人的拥护。
7.流行歌曲《愚公移山》中这样唱道：“听起来是奇闻，讲起来是笑谈…… 无路难呀开路更难，所以后来人为你感叹。”请谈谈你对愚公“开路”精神的理解。
[答]挖山不止的顽强意志，排除非议的坚定信心。
二：
1．课文选自《 》，作者是_______时______，文体是_______
2．解释加点的词
（1）且 （2）惩 （3）迂
（4）诸 （5）焉 （6）反
3．用原文填空
（1）愚公移山的原因是：
（2）愚公移山的`目标是：
（3）愚公移山的方式是：
（4）愚公移山时的土石放置在哪里？
（5）反映移山辛苦的句子是：
（6）写出了挖山的艰难和决心的坚定的语句是：
（7）文段中表现愚公移山的一个典型细节是：
4．下列句子中加点的多义词，意思相同的一项是（ ）
（1）（ ）A．年且九十／且焉置土石 B．聚室而谋曰／今其室十无一焉
C．杂然相许／遂许先卒以驱驰 D．其妻献疑曰／时而献焉
（2）（ ）A．达于汉阴／阴风怒号／佳木秀而繁阴
B．其妻献疑曰／其一犬坐于前／其真不知马也
C．以君之力／何以战／以天下之所顺
D．杂然相许／满坐寂然／吴广以为然
5．翻译下列句子
（1）如太行，王屋何？且焉置土石？
（2）遂率子孙荷担者三夫，叩石垦壤，箕畚运于渤海之尾？
（3 ）吾与汝毕力平险,指通豫南,达于汉阴,可乎?
6．站在今天的角度，就愚公移山的精神和做法，谈谈你的看法．
7．选文中＂杂然相许＂与＂其妻献疑＂意思是否矛盾？为什么？
答案：
1．列子·汤问，战国，列御寇，寓言
2．1）将近况且 2）苦于 3）绕远 4）＂之于＂ 5）哪里 6）同＂返＂往返
3．1）惩山北之塞，出入之迂也
2）指通豫南，达于汉阴
3）（叩石垦壤）箕畚运（于渤海之尾）
4）渤海之尾，隐士之兆
5）寒暑易节，始一反焉
6）叩石垦壤，箕畚运于渤海之尾，寒……焉，邻人……助之
4．1）B 2）C
5．1）又能把太行，王屋这两座大山怎么样呢？况且把土石放到哪里去呢？
2）于是率领子孙中能挑担子的三个人，凿石挖土，用箕畚着把土石运到渤海边上去
6．愚公精神值得继承和发扬，但做法不合乎今天快速，速反应高效的发展要求．
7．不矛盾，＂杂然相许＂表明愚公提议移山受到众人的拥护，＂其妻献疑＂是出于对愚公的关心，并不是反时愚公移山．
三：
2．下列加点词意思相同的一项是（ ）（2分）
A．本在冀州之南，河阳之北 友人惭，下车引之
B．箕畚运于渤海之尾 皆以美于徐公
C．河曲智叟亡以应 文叔为白衣时，臧亡匿死
D．惧其不已也 是亦不可以已乎？此之谓失其本心
3．解释下面句中加点词的意思。
⑴北山愚公者，年且九十 且：
⑵指通豫南，达于汉阴 汉阴：
⑶杂然相许 许：
⑷操蛇之神闻之 操：
4．把下列句子翻译成现代汉语。（6分，每小题3分）
（1）以君之力，曾不能损魁父之丘，如太行王屋何？
（2）寒暑易节，始一反焉。
5．对于愚公移山历来毁誉不一，你认为愚公该移山还是搬家？请谈谈你的看法。（4分）
[参考答案]
2．D
3．且：将要，快要或将近（2）汉阴：汉水的南岸（3）许：赞同（4）操：持，拿
4．（1）凭你的力气，连魁父这座小山也难挖平，又能把太行、王屋怎么样呢？ （2）冬夏季节变化，才能往返一次。
5．观点一：愚公应该移山。
（1）用发展的眼光来看，山可移。“子子孙孙无穷匮也，而山不加增”，只要持之以恒，山终有被挖平的一天。
（2）移山有利，愚公一家深受阻塞之苦，搬掉两座山可“指通豫南，达于汉阴”，给子孙后代带来莫大好处，这是深谋远虑之举。
观点二：愚公应该搬家。
（1）搬家比移山容易得多，当时生产力极其低下，工具简陋，劳动强度巨大，移山困难重重。
（2）搬家比移山更明智。做事要会变通，山不转水转，水不转人转，山外更开阔，更方便，更适宜居家生活。（大意即可）
译文：
太行、王屋两座大山，四周各七百里，高七八百千丈。本来在冀州的南部、黄河北岸的北边。
北山脚下有个叫愚公的人，年纪将近九十岁了，面对着山居住。愚公苦于山北面道路阻塞，进进出出曲折绕远。于是愚公便召集全家人来商量说：“我和你们尽全力铲平险峻的大山，使它一直通到豫州南部，到达汉水南岸，好吗？”大家纷纷表示赞同他的意见。愚公的妻子提出疑问说：“凭你的力量，连魁父这座小丘都铲平不了，又能把太行、王屋这两座山怎么样呢？况且把土石放到哪里去呢？”大家纷纷说：“把土石扔到渤海的边上，隐土的北面。”愚公于是带领儿子孙子和能挑担子的三个人，凿石挖土，用箕畚装土石运到渤海的边上。邻居姓京城的寡妇只有一个儿子，刚七八岁，但却蹦蹦跳跳地去帮助他们。冬夏换季，才往返一次。
河曲的智叟笑着阻止愚公说：“你真是太不聪明了。凭你残余的岁月剩余的力气，连山上的一根草木都动不了，又能把泥土和石头怎么样呢？”愚公长叹一声说：“你思想顽固，顽固到不能改变的地步，连寡妇孤儿都不如。即使我死了，还有儿子在呀；儿子又生孙子，孙子又生儿子；儿子又有儿子，儿子又有孙子；子子孙孙没有穷尽的，可是山不会增高加大，为什么还担心挖不平呢？”智叟无言而对。
山神听说了这件事，怕他不停地挖下去，向天帝报告了这件事。天帝被他的诚心感动，命令夸娥氏的两个儿子背走了两座山。一座放在朔方东部，一座放在雍州南面。从此，冀州的南部，直到汉水的南岸，没有山冈阻隔了。
赏析：
《列子·愚公移山》，是一篇具有朴素的唯物主义和朴素的辩证法思想的寓言故事。它借愚公形象的塑造，表现了我国古代劳动人民有移山填海的坚定信心和顽强毅力，说明了“愚公不愚，智叟不智”，只要不怕困难，坚持斗争，定能获得事业上的成功，这对人们有很大的启发。
这则寓言一开始简介了“太行、王屋二山“既高且大，位当南北交通要道。老愚公“面山而居”，出入不便，需要绕山而行，这就揭示了人和山的矛盾，即愚公移山的原因。
第一段写太行、王屋二山的面积、高度和地理位置。意在衬托移山的艰难。愚公要移山，山越高大，移山的任务越艰巨愚公的品质也就越突出。这是故事的背景，为下文愚公移山埋下伏笔。
第二段写愚公主张提出移山，家里人提出运土方案，率领几人便马上开始行动。
第三段写愚公对智叟的驳斥，这是情节的发展。愚公和智叟的对话是全文的核心，愚公坚信可以移山。智叟目光短浅，阻止愚公移山。
第四段写天帝被愚公的诚心感动了，派神将山背走了，愚公的愿望实现了。
文章通过愚公移山成功的事情,反映了我国古代劳动人民改造自然的伟大气魄和惊人毅力,说明了要克服困难就必须下定决心，持之以恒，坚持不懈的道理.
人物分析
愚公：目光长远，以发展的眼光看问题，积极奋斗，不怕困难，不怕牺牲。
智叟：目光短浅，以静止的观点看问题，对困难采取冷漠逃避。
